Italian Colonization (1911-1943)

In the 19th century, like other European powers, Italy sought to exploit the African continent for resources, markets, and diplomatic prestige. Italy viewed Libya as its "fourth shore," akin to how France regarded Algeria. At the time, Italy had been a unified state for only half a century, and it would take another ten years before it first attempted to invade Ethiopia.

Following the 1911-1912 Italian-Turkish War, Italy seized three Ottoman provinces in North Africa. However, these provinces did not fulfill Italy’s imperial ambitions. Despite their numerical superiority, Italian forces were held at a standstill for a year by a small number of Turks and their allies. Nonetheless, Italy claimed a political victory.

Italy planned to bring between 500,000 and 1,000,000 settlers, primarily landless peasants ("Pedí iter") from southern and central Italy, to settle in Libya. These settlers were to establish themselves in fertile regions, particularly the Green Mountain area in eastern Libya. In 1934, the colony was officially named "Italian Libya," adopting the term from ancient Greek history. Resistance from local populations was met with violent suppression, including concentration camps and massacres.

The Italian settlers justified their presence by claiming to be reclaiming territory that had once been part of the Roman Empire. This notion of restoring the Roman African provinces played a significant role in the propaganda for colonization.

Italian rule in Libya continued until 1943, when Fascist and Nazi forces were expelled from North Africa. The Allied occupation ended in 1951, paving the way for Libya’s independence as a kingdom.

Independence and the Kingdom of Libya (1951)

Italy and its Axis partners were decisively defeated in the Battle of El Alamein in 1942, and British Allied forces entered Libya. Italy’s defeat had lasting repercussions for its colonial ambitions.

In the years leading up to World War II, Libyan tribal leaders held conferences to discuss which side Libya should support in the event of war. Libya had been under foreign occupation for decades, and it was only in 1947 that Italy and France agreed to withdraw.

King Idris, who had been in exile, along with other representatives, worked to secure Libya’s independence. With British and Allied support, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica aligned themselves with the Allies. The British proposed the Bevin-Sforza Plan, which aimed to continue British control over Cyrenaica, return Tripolitania to Italy, and place Fezzan under French trusteeship. However, Arab nationalists strongly opposed this proposal.

Due to protests from Arab nationalists, the United Nations declared Libya a united and independent kingdom. A National Assembly drafted a constitution that established a federal government with provincial parliaments. On December 24, 1951, Libya gained independence, becoming the United Kingdom of Libya. Sīdī Muḥammad Idrīs al-Mahdī al-Sanūsī, head of the Senussi Muslim order, was crowned as the nation’s first king.

Arab Spring and Libyan Civil War

In 1969, while King Idris was in Turkey for medical treatment, a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi overthrew the monarchy. Gaddafi ruled Libya for 42 years, making him Africa’s longest-serving leader. Politically and culturally, his tenure was controversial, and his economic policies reflected absolute control.

By early 2011, protests against Gaddafi’s regime erupted, beginning in Benghazi and spreading to other cities. The opposition united on February 27, 2011, to form the Libyan National Council. The uprising turned violent as protesters took up arms. Gaddafi responded with brutal crackdowns, vowing to eliminate dissent “house by house” and “street by street.”

NATO intervened, launching airstrikes against Gaddafi’s forces to protect civilians. Weakened by these attacks, Gaddafi fled to his hometown, Sirte, where he was captured and killed by protesters on October 20, 2011.

Following Gaddafi’s death, a transitional government, the General National Congress, was elected to restructure Libya’s government and draft a new constitution. However, the new government failed to bring stability, leading to the return of Khalifa Haftar, a former general under Gaddafi, to take a leading role in Libya’s political and military affairs.